Theories Of Learning In Psychology
Theories Of Learning
Although classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both helpful learning theories, they do not explain all of how we learn. As a result, other theories of learning have been created.
In this article we shall explore each of these different theories:
- Observational learning
- Latent learning
- Insight learning
- Learning to learn (learning sets)
Observational Learning
Observational learning occurs when a behaviour is acquired by watching the behaviour of someone else.
This second person is known as a “model” and either intentionally or unintentionally demonstrates a behaviour to you.
If the observer is able to identify with this behaviour and receive some sort of satisfaction from it, then they are said to have received vicarious reinforcement (imagined gratification).
For example, if your favourite sports team wins a game then you receive an internal sense of satisfaction as a result of their victory.
You have received vicarious reinforcement, which may then motivate you to play that sport.
Vicarious reinforcement can occur in virtually any circumstance in which you as the observer, receive some sort of gratification from watching the behaviour of another person (the model).
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is an expansion of observational learning, and deals with how social groups can be affected by their environment.
A good example of social learning theory can be found amongst teenagers who follow various celebrity “role models”.
If the teen receives some sort of gratification (vicarious reinforcement) from observing the behaviour of their role model, then they are likely to adopt a similar type of behaviour.
For example, a teen that idolises a rock star may start playing a musical instrument such as a guitar. As a result, their behaviour has now been altered.
We can further subdivide the type of behaviour we acquire as a result of social learning, into either prosocial or antisocial behaviour.
Prosocial Behaviour
Prosocial behaviour is behaviour that benefits another person, a group of people or society as a whole.
For example, if a child learns to recycle and live an environmentally friendly lifestyle from their parents, they are likely to act that way for the rest of their life.
Their behaviour is prosocial, because it benefits the environment and society as a whole.
Antisocial Behaviour
Antisocial social behaviour is behaviour which is destructive to others and very often to yourself.
For example, a teen who steals from other people or vandalises property is exhibiting antisocial behaviour, because it is destructive to other people and the surrounding environment.
Latent Learning
Latent learning is learning which occurs without reinforcement, and which may later be reactivated with a reinforcer.
For example, if a rat is left in a maze it will randomly explore the maze and try to find a way out.
If we repeat this several times, the rat may appear to exhibit the same type of behaviour where it randomly explores the maze looking for the exit.
Although the rat has been in this maze several times, it appears not to have learnt anything because it still takes a long time to get out.
Activating Latent Knowledge
If however we were to then introduce some food into the maze (a reinforcer), the rat would quickly learn to escape the maze. Almost as though it suddenly learnt how to do it.
The purpose of the reinforcer was to act as an incentive, which activates what the rat had previously learnt.
In this case, the first few times the rat was exploring the maze it was learning, even though it appeared not to be learning anything.
When we added food to the maze this prior learning which had remained latent (dormant), suddenly became reactivated thereby allowing the rat to use its previous knowledge of the maze to quickly learn the escape route.
Applying Latent Learning
Basically what this all means is that you learn things through experience, even though you may not think you are learning anything at the time.
Later if something reactivates what you (latently) learnt from that experience, you will be able to learn it very quickly.
For example, when you are at school one of the best ways to improve your understanding of a subject is to research it before you are meant to learn it.
So if you have a lecture next week, by studying for that lecture now you will be able to understand it better and faster once you actually sit that lecture. Your prior latent learning has allowed for an accelerated future learning.
This is hardly surprising if you look at it from the perspective of the brain. When you learn something you form neural pathways in the brain related to that activity.
This means that the next time you do it, your existing neural pathways will be strengthened and refined thereby allowing you to perform better.
Latent learning may therefore be described as the creation of these pathways, which provides a foundation for future learning.
This is why it is important to expose your mind to as much information as you can about a subject, because even though it may seem difficult now, the next time it will be a lot easier.
Insight Learning
Insight learning is an “a-ha!” moment, when something suddenly seems to click into place and make sense. A good example of this can be found with research done by Wolfgang Kohler on an ape called Sultan.
Sultan was put in a cage and given two sticks which could be clicked together to make a longer tool. Slightly outside the reach of the sticks was an orange.
Sultan spent a lot of time trying to get the orange, first with his hands and then with the sticks. However he was unable to reach the orange no matter what he did.
Then one day Sultan clicked the two sticks together, and was able to reach the orange. This “insight” Sultan received, came as a result of his past attempts to get the orange and a reorganisation of those experiences.
So whereas previously Sultan had two seemingly useless sticks, he now had a useful long stick, something which he did not have the insight to see before.
So insight learning is an insight into our past experiences, from which we can use to solve problems we were previously unable to.
This has most likely happened to you many times. For example, someone may be trying to explain something to you, but no matter what they say you just don’t seem to “get it”. Then all of a sudden it clicks and “a-ha” you now see what they mean.
Resistance To Extinction
Since insight learning is acquired as a result of past experiences, it tends to be fairly resistant to forgetting. In other words, “once you got it, you go it”.
On the other hand, if you were to learn something simply through memorisation, then you are likely to forget what you had learnt fairly rapidly.
This is why it is extremely important to try and actively apply what you mentally do, to solidify that knowledge in the brain.
If you are at school and are trying to learn a subject well, then a good way to solidify your learning would be to teach it to someone else as you will now be actively using your mental knowledge.
Learning To Learn
Learning to learn describes the use of learning sets in learning. Basically it states that we become better at what we repeatedly do.
So for example, if you solve crossword puzzles, then over time you are likely to find them easier and easier and so will need harder puzzles to challenge you.
The same applies to learning a new subject. At first it seems hard, but the more you study it the easier it becomes.
The idea of learning sets first came from research done by psychologist Harry Harlow. He tested a monkey’s ability to find a grape under a container.
The test was to see if the monkey could discriminate between the two different shapes of the containers, by getting the grape from the under the correct container.
What Harlow found was that after the first exercise, the monkey’s ability to discriminate between different shapes (and get the grape) in subsequent exercises increased rapidly.
The monkey was said to have acquired a learning set, using previous knowledge to quickly solve future problems.
Memory In Learning
Memory is defined as the ability to retain knowledge, and is therefore necessary for learning.
The process of memory involves three main stages:
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
Let’s look at each of these now.
Encoding
Encoding is the process of making information meaningful to you, and a good example of encoding can be found with anagrams.
For example, if you are presented with the letters ABT they would be meaningless to you.
If however you are told ABT represents an animal that fly’s, then you can rearrange those letters to form BAT which now has some meaning to you.
Storage
Storage is the ability to retain information for a period of time, and can be further subdivided into short term memory and long term memory.
Short Term Memory
Short term memory is also called working memory, and allows you to hold onto information for a few minutes, after which you will then forget about it.
Long Term Memory
Long term memory is information which has been more or less permanently stored. This type of memory is what allows you to remember your past.
Long term memory tends to be associated with short term memory, because if your short term memory is impaired then this will interfere with your capacity to form long term memories.
Retrieval
Retrieval occurs when you access a previously stored memory. In other words, it comes into your conscious awareness.
There are three main processes which can occur during retrieval of memories.
1 – Recall
Recall is the ability to easily recall a memory. For example, you know what your friends name is.
2 – Recognition
Recognition occurs when something helps you to remember something else. For example, a multiple choice test will contain one correct answer.
If you see that correct answer, it will help you to recall any previously stored memory you have of it.
3 – Repression
Repression occurs when a memory is forced into the unconscious, in an attempt to protect the ego from some sort of psychological threat. For example, a painful or traumatic experience in your life.
Summary
• Observational learning involves acquiring a behaviour from a model.
• Social learning theory is how our environment affects our behaviour, and how we affect it.
• Prosocial behaviour benefits others. Antisocial behaviour is destructive towards others.
• Latent learning means learning through experience. This knowledge can then be reactivated if you are given some kind of incentive to do so.
• Insight learning is an “a-ha” moment, and is a sudden realisation or understanding of something.
• Insight learning is very resistant to extinction.
• Learning sets allow you to get better at something the more you practice it.
• The three main stages involved in memory are encoding (make something meaning to you), storage (short term vs. long term memory) and retrieval (conscious awareness of a memory).
• Processes involved in retrieval include recall, recognition and repression.
