Attachment can be defined as a relationship between an infant and a caregiver over a period of time that results in the formation of a social and emotional bond (Martin, Carlson and Buskist, 2007). Konrad Lorenz suggested that this process of attachment first occurs during a “critical period” in which an infant instinctively attaches itself to a mother figure (Gross, 2009).
However, the type of attachment that ultimately results from the ensuing relationship is largely dependent upon the sensitivity of the caregiver towards the infant.
For example, caregivers who are consistently attentive to an infants needs tend to result in that infant having trust in the caregiver and developing a secure attachment relationship.
Conversely, caregivers who do not adequately attend to an infants needs, tend to result in that infant lacking trust and developing an insecure attachment relationship (Sroufe, Cooper and DeHart, 1996).
The behaviors of an infant may also give clues as to the type of attachment relationship that has formed. In Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” experiment for example, securely attached infants tended to show the least distress when a stranger appeared or when their mother left and were quickly comforted by their mother.
Insecurely attached infants however, displayed greater distress upon their mothers departure and took longer to be comforted (resistant attachment) or showed little distress upon their mothers departure but then ignored or avoided the mother upon her return (avoidant attachment) (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters and Wall, 1978).
Cross Cultural Attachment Variations
The norms and values of a society influence the beliefs and behaviors of an individual. As a result, cultural differences in how a mother treats her infant are likely to affect the type of attachment relationship that is formed.
In Germany for example, children are taught to become independent from an early age which may be one reason why avoidant attachment tends to be more common with German infants (Grossman, Grossman, Huber and Wartner, 1981).
In Japan, mothers very rarely allow others to look after their child, which may help to explain why Japanese infants tend to display the greatest levels of resistant attachment (Miyake, Chen and Campos, 1985).
Can Attachment Classifications Be Universally Applied?
A meta-analysis of 32 “Strange Situation” studies conducted by Van-Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) supports the idea of a universal application of secure and insecure attachment classifications, as the analysis revealed that secure attachment was the most common form of attachment across all cultures, whilst avoidant attachment tended to be more common in Western Europe and resistant attachment more common in Japan.
However, care must be taken when interpreting such findings as cultural differences may in fact have skewed the results obtained. In Japan for example, mothers do not leave one year old infants alone by themselves (Takahashi, 1986).
It could be argued therefore, that when Japanese infants are left alone during a Strange Situation experiment that this experience would be particularly upsetting to them, thereby resulting in more Japanese infants being labelled as “resistant attached”.
Furthermore, the type of relationship a parent has with their child can vary between cultures, and therefore, could also affect the type of cultural attachment classifications that are made (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake and Morelli, 2000).
In Germany for example, parents may perceive the behaviors associated with a securely attached infant as being indicative of a spoilt child and may thus try to discourage such behavior (Malim and Birch, 1998).
However, whilst there are different factors which may cast doubt upon the universality of infant attachment classifications, such differences ultimately reinforce the idea that the style of caregiving affects the development of infant attachment and so should not be entirely discounted.
References
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gross, R. (2009). Psychology the Science of Mind and Behaviour (5th edition). Hodder Education.
Grossman, K.E., Grossman, K., Huber, F., & Wartner, U. (1981). German children’s behavior towards their mothers at 12 months and their fathers at 18 months in Ainsworth’s strange situation. International Journal of Behavioural Development 4, 157-181.
Malim, T., & Birch, A. (1998). Introductory Psychology. Palgrave Macmillan.
Martin, G.N., Carlson, N.R., & Buskist, W. (2007). Psychology (3rd edition). Pearson Education Limited.
Miyake, K., Chen, S.J., & Campos, J.J. (1985). Infant temperament, mother’s mode of interaction and attachment in Japan: an interim report. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 50, 276-297.
Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M., Miyake, K., & Morelli, G. (2000). Attachment and culture: Security in the United States and Japan. American Psychologist 55, 1093-1104.
Sroufe, L.A., Cooper, R.G., & DeHart, G.B. (1996). Child Development: Its Nature and Course (3rd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Takahashi, K. (1986). Examining the Strange Situation procedure with Japanese mothers and 12-month old infants. Developmental Psychology 22, 265-270.
Van-Ijzendoorn, M.H., & Kroonenberg, P.M. (1988). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: a meta-analysis of the Strange Situation. Child Development 59, 147-156.
Reviewed – 27th March 2016